Discussion Goals: To review some of the basic Scriptural principles of Christian environmental stewardship and to identify the considerations and constraints involved in applying these principles to the conservation of a creational resource, namely aluminum metal.
Introduction: In 1997, 100 billion aluminum cans were produced in the U.S. (2) Only half were recycled. What parties and constraints are responsible for this poor management of aluminum?
The beverage and food distribution industry recognizes the importance of convenient, attractive packaging. For example, the Coca-Cola company claims that the embossed aluminum can is a key in its "strategy of using packaging to increase perceived value for customers, and 'it gives this can a really incredible appearance, a wonderful feel.' Consumers [have said] they like the look, the feel, and in some cases, say it makes the product taste better."
- On the other hand, proper stewardship of aluminum as a metal resource requires that we consider the environmental, economic, and cultural-human rights implications surrounding "the convenient can."
Aluminum Mining and Smelting:
- A large amount of energy is required to refine the bauxite and produce the molten aluminum, and then shape it into sheets from which cans are then manufactured. In addition there are prior costs of shipping the bauxite to the smelter, and restoration of landscapes disrupted by bauxite mining. Aside from the impact on tropical landscapes and resident biodiversity, there are also effects on human cultures and human rights.
- Smelting Process Described: http://www.alfed.org.uk/smelting.htm
- Bauxite Mining in Australia: http://www.gn.apc.org/inquirer/weipa.html
Question #1: Identify any ecological, Scriptural, and bioethical implications involved in bauxite mining in Suriname.
Subsidies: Nations that offer to subsidize some of the energy costs may cause the aluminum refining industry to locate within their borders. Hence, aluminum refining is strongly politically influenced.
According to McConnell, R.L. and D.C. Abel2:
- "The most obvious reason for a country to subsidize mining is to provide local employment. Subsidies might result in local workers receiving cash wages, allowing them to raise their standard of living, or discouraging them from migrating to large cities to seek work there."
References that question the use of subsidies:
Creating a Sustainable Materials Society (WorldWatch Institute) http://www.worldwatch.org/pubs/paper/121.html
David Roodman's (WorldWatch Inst.) elaboration on the proposed elimination of subsidies and tax cut: http://www.worldwatch.org/alerts/pr980912.html
Question #2: How might subsidies for aluminum refining work in opposition to aluminum recycling? Can you identify benefits of subsidies?
- Due the energy intensive nature of aluminum refining, smelters tend to concentrate in areas where electric power rates are low. For example the Bonneville Power Authority (BPA) has thirty (30) hydroelectric power generating dams on the Columbia and Snake Rivers in the Pacific Northwest. BPA charges aluminum refiners about 2 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh), or about 30% of the average charge to industrial consumers, and amounting to a savings of about $200 million per year
Based upon estimates from several sources as cited in , McConnell, R.L. and D.C. Abel1, a reasonable average energy requirement to produce one aluminum can is 2000 kilocalories (Cal), which equals 2.33 kWh per can. Table 1. "Can Computations:"
| Energy or Economic Component: | Quantity: |
| 1. Energy required to produce 1 aluminum can (from above) = | 2.33 kWh |
| 2. Cost a Consumer pays per kWh to Dayton Power and Light = | $0.09/kWh |
| 3. Cost of manufacturing the 6 aluminum cans (from item 2.) = | |
| 4. Sale price of a six-pack of a generic brand of soft drink = | |
| 5. Profit to be divided among aluminum refiners, container manufacturers, beverage manufacturers and beverage handlers = |
- Question #3: How do you explain the narrow profit margin above?
Question #4: Compute the quantity of energy in kWh represented in the discarding of aluminum cans by the
1997 estimate given in the Introduction. ___________________
- Question #5: What dollar value according to our current economy is placed on these discarded cans?
- _______________ Analyze this practice from a stewardship perspective.
Dams and Fish: In the Pacific Northwest, subsidies are not only extended to aluminum refiners but also to residential consumers. Their average electricity cost is 55% of the national average, and they use 60% more electricity per capita than the national average
1. Meanwhile, the hydroelectric power dams have been one of the reasons for the decline in salmon and steelhead trout from a once prospering fishing industry on the Columbia and Snake Rivers.
Question #6: What other ecological challenges exist in the Pacific Northwest, and how might the interactions of landscape and river use and/or abuse combine to lower the quality of the river habitats? What do current policies suggest concerning the value that is being placed upon the land, the water, and aquatic life in the Northwest; and, upon aluminum cans? Summary: This discussion guide has briefly examined some of the issues related to aluminum refining and use in beverage packaging. A few sources have been cited and linked for your further reading. Questions have been inserted above which are intended to prepare you to enter discussion of the questions below. However, two more preliminary questions are appropriate as we prepare to analyze the complete scenario and apply environmental stewardship principles toward better aluminum management:
Question #7: Do you believe the references cited present an accurate picture? Explain.
- Question #8: You may wish to consult other sources dealing with aluminum refining and usage. Bring them to
- the discussion and be prepared to share insights which you have found.
- 1. In view of the above considerations, do you believe the manner in which we currently handle aluminum
- is a moral and bioethical issue? Explain why or why not, and present Scriptural support for your position.
- 2. In what ways should a proper "environmental ethic" be applied to determining the cost of energy used by
- industry and residential customers? Include "externalities" (indirect costs of aluminum refining) and
discuss how the cost of aluminum should be set?
3. Having discussed #2., how could Christians influence political decision making so as to favor
stewardship of aluminum?
4. Summarize the constraints against proper Christian stewardship of aluminum and propose a plan that addresses and overcomes these constraints.
A. Aluminum Smelting:
- 1. Smelting Process: http://www.alfed.org.uk/smelting.htm
2. Case Example #1: Bauxite mining in Suriname - Implications for human rights and rain forest biodiversity 3. Case Example #2 (Industry View): Australian Aluminum Council - includes greenhouse gas/global warming reduction plans
- Economics of Recycling Subsidies: Link to David Roodman, World Watch Inst., author of The Natural Wealth of Nations who argues that governments must slash the $650 billion in obsolete subsidies for environmentally destructive activities like clearcutting and mining--that could pay for a $2000 tax cut for every family of four in the United States, Japan or Germany. And they need to shift an additional $1.5 trillion a year in revenue, by jacking up taxes on pollution and resource waste and using the money to cut taxes on work and investment. Link to Rodman's book: The Natural Wealth of Nations http://csf.colorado.edu/sustainable-economics/natural-wealth.html
- David Roodman's elaboration on the proposed elimination of subsidies and tax cut: Creating a Sustainable Materials Society (WW Institute)
C. Recycling Statistics
- 1. Anchorage Recycling Center: http://www.anchoragerecycling.com/alumfact.htm
2. "Aluminum" -- properties and influences on recycling -- brief summary of benefit of recycling aluminum with respect to energy conservation; sugested plan for increasing recycling is given.
3. Greenhouse Challenge -- Guide to Recycling of Common Materials:
http://www.obviously.com/recycle/guides/common.html
- 4. Daily Metal Prices -- http://www.metalprices.com
Christian Stewardship Implications for Recycling -- Internet Articles by Dr. Calvin DeWitt, AuSable Institute:
- "The First Step" http://cesc.montreat.edu/papers/action/The_First_Step1.htm
"If Everyone Lived as We Do" http://cesc.montreat.edu/papers/action/Can_The_Whole_World1.htm
1. Presented at the Fourth Annual Conference on Bioethical Issues, 1998. Mt. Vernon Nazarene College,
Mt. Vernon, OH,
2. McConnell, R.L. and D.C. Abel. 1999. Environmental Issues: Measuring, Analyzing,
and Evaluating. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
